Date of Defense

5-1-2026

Date of Graduation

5-2026

Department

Psychology

First Advisor

Scott Gaynor

Second Advisor

Megan Campbell

Third Advisor

Abby Vonk

Keywords

indirect trauma exposure, school shootings, gun violence, posttraumatic stress, anxiety, perceived safety, psychological flexibility

Abstract

The growing prevalence of gun violence in school settings within the United States, combined with extensive media coverage of these events, has heightened concerns regarding the psychological impact of indirect trauma exposure among students. The present study examined associations between indirect exposure to gun-based school violence and symptoms of posttraumatic stress and anxiety among undergraduate students at Western Michigan University (WMU). A secondary aim was to explore whether perceived safety and psychological flexibility/inflexibility moderated associations between indirect exposure and psychological distress. Using a cross-sectional correlational design, undergraduate students (N = 33) completed a self-report survey containing screening assessments, attention checks, and measures of indirect exposure to school violence, anxiety, posttraumatic stress symptoms, perceived safety on campus and within the surrounding community, concern regarding gun violence occurring on campus, and psychological flexibility. Person product-moment correlations evaluated relationships among study variables. Results identified no significant associations between indirect exposure and symptoms of posttraumatic stress or anxiety, limiting support for the proposed moderating effects of perceived campus safety and psychological flexibility. However, several meaningful relationships emerged among key constructs. Psychological flexibility demonstrated a moderate negative association with anxiety (r = −.47, p = .02), whereas psychological inflexibility demonstrated a strong positive association with anxiety (r = .56, p = .004) and moderate positive association with indirect exposure (r = .44, p = .03). Perceived campus safety was also strongly associated with indirect exposure (r = .50, p = .008), such that greater exposure corresponded to increased fear of gun violence on campus and reduced perceptions of safety. Together, these findings suggest that cognitive and emotional processes may shape responses to school shooting-related media exposure and anxiety outcomes. Overall, psychological flexibility and inflexibility may function more as underlying mechanisms associated with psychological distress than hypothesized moderating factors. Given the exploratory nature of the study and the limited sample size, findings should be interpreted with appropriate caution.

Access Setting

Honors Thesis-Open Access

Additional Files
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